Myanmar or Burma, republic in South East Asia, bordered on the north by China; on the east by China, Laos, and Thailand; on the south by the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal; and on the west by the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, and India. The country was known as Burma until June 19, 1989, when the military government changed its official name to the Union of Myanmar (Myanma Naingngandaw); this name is recognized by the United Nations, but not by all governments and in this article Myanmar will be used for post-June-1989 references. The coastal region is known as Lower Myanmar, while the interior region is known as Upper Myanmar. The total area of the country is 676,552 sq km (261,218 sq mi). Rangoon (Yangon) is the capital and largest city of Myanmar.

POPULATION

Myanmar has a population of 42,720,196 (2004 estimate). The overall population density is 65 people per sq km (168 per sq mi), one of the lowest in the region. The population is about 71 per cent rural, with almost half the urban population found in the three largest cities: Rangoon, Mandalay, and Moulmein.

LANGUAGE

The official language, Burmese (or “Myanmar”), is a first language for over half the population, and a second language for most of the remainder. A tonal language, it has its own alphabet and is from the Sino-Tibetan language family, as are many of the over 100 other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Myanmar (Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken by 78 per cent of the population).

About 6 per cent of the population speaks Shan, a Tai-Kadai language, as a mother tongue, and different forms of the Karen language (Sino-Tibetan) are spoken by similar numbers, in particular S’gaw Karen and Pwo Eastern Karen, each of which have over 1 million first-language speakers in Myanmar. Some Austro-Asiatic languages are also spoken, including Vo, Parauk, Pale Palaung, and Mon. Chinese is also used by an immigrant community.


RELIGION

More than 85 per cent of the people of Myanmar are Buddhists, most of whom adhere to the Theravada school of Buddhism. Small groups of Hindus, Muslims, and Christians also live there. For the Burman majority population, Buddhism is central to daily life, with the monastery (pongyi kyaung) forming the core of the community, especially in the villages. The shinpyu rite of passage, usual for boys, involves entering the monastery temporarily as a novice monk, and many return later in life for temporary retreats. Monks normally begin each day by going round the villages begging alms.
Underlying the everyday practice of Buddhism is an indigenous culture of animism, the worship of spirits known as nat. This provides a basis for many nat festivals, and for much traditional medical practice. Muslims have long formed part of the population, and there is also a significant number of Christians (mostly Baptists), particularly in the hill areas.

Lebanon (country) (in Arabic, Lubnan), officially the Lebanese Republic, republic in the Middle East, bordered on the north and east by Syria, on the south-east and south by Israel, and on the west by the Mediterranean Sea. Its area is 10,452 sq km (4,036 sq mi). The capital and leading port is Beirut.


POPULATION

The population of Lebanon is 3,777,218 (2004 estimate); the overall density is about 369 people per sq km (956 per sq mi). About 90 per cent of the people live in urban areas.


LANGUAGE

The official language is Standard Arabic but French also has some official status according to the constitution. Standard Arabic is a second language, taught in schools and used in formal domains and for communication across Arab nations. The more popular form of Arabic, and the mother tongue for most Lebanese, is North Levantine Spoken Arabic. French is used daily by around 20 per cent of the people; many more are competent in the language, and it is used in most schools as the language of instruction. In addition to these languages, Armenian is the first language of a small percentage of the population, and is spoken widely as a second language. English can also be heard occasionally.

RELIGION

The most prevalent religion in Lebanon numerically is Islam, with around 40 per cent of the population adhering to Shiism and some 21 per cent to Sunni Islam. The principal denominations of Christians, who make up about 32 per cent of the population, are Maronite, Greek Orthodox Church, Armenian Church, and Protestant. Druze make up about 7 per cent.

Laos, officially Lao People’s Democratic Republic, independent state in South East Asia, bounded on the north by China and Vietnam, on the east by Vietnam, on the south by Cambodia, on the west by Thailand, and on the north-west by Myanmar (Burma). Laos is South East Asia’s only landlocked nation. The total area is 236,800 sq km (91,430 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Laos is Vientiane.


POPULATION

The people of Laos are of three main groups. The largest group is composed of Lao, who are closely related to the Thai. They constitute about half of the population and live mainly in the lowlands along the Mekong River and its tributaries. An Indonesian people, called Lao Theung (“mountain people”), live in the highlands, and minority groups of Sino-Tibetan origin, such as the Hmong (Miao) and Yao, inhabit the northern mountains. Smaller minority groups include Vietnamese and Chinese.

LANGUAGE

The official and national language of the country is Lao, a Tai-Kadai language spoken by around 3 million people as a mother tongue. Around 80 other indigenous languages are spoken by minority groups, from the Tai-Kadai, Austro-Asiatic, Daic, and Sino-Tibetan language families.

RELIGION

The principal religion of Laos is Theravada Buddhism. Many of the mountain peoples follow animist beliefs, sometimes in combination with Buddhism.

Kuwait (country), independent state on the north-western coast of the Persian Gulf. It is bordered on the north and north-west by Iraq, on the east by the Persian Gulf, and on the south by Saudi Arabia. The country’s total area, including the islands of Bubiyan, Warbah, and Faylakah, is 17,818 sq km (6,880 sq mi). The national capital and chief port is Kuwait City. From August 1990 to February 1991, Iraq, in defiance of the United Nations Security Council, annexed and occupied Kuwait, claiming it as Iraq’s 19th province. This action led to the Gulf War, which liberated the country. In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait, which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions made in 1991 and 1993; this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands.

POPULATION

The native population of Kuwait consists of Arabs; citizenship is reserved for those able to demonstrate local ancestry from before 1920. Many minority groups are present, however, including Arabs from other countries, Indians, Pakistanis, and Iranians. Prior to 1990 native Kuwaitis only comprised some 25 per cent of the population; they now make up 50 per cent. Palestinians were formerly the largest minority, but Palestinian support for the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait made the government encourage them to leave after liberation. Official Kuwaiti policy is now to maintain at least a marginal majority of native residents. The population of Kuwait is 2,257,549 (2004 estimate). The overall population density is about 127 people per sq km (328 per sq mi). Average life expectancy at birth in 2004 was 76 years for men and 78 years for women.

LANGUAGE

Standard Arabic is the official language, a second language learnt in schools and used in official domains. The more popular form of Arabic used is Gulf Spoken Arabic, which is a mother tongue for around 85 per cent of the population. Mehri, a Semitic language, is the first language for a small minority. Immigrant Arabic languages are also spoken by some.


RELIGION

Islam is the predominant religion, 45 per cent being Sunni Muslims, and 30 per cent, Shiite Muslims. A law of 1981 limits citizenship to Muslims.

Kazakhstan, republic in Central Asia, bordered on the north by Russia; on the east by China; on the south by Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan; and on the west by the Caspian Sea and Russia. It was formerly the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

POPULATION

Until recently, Russians outnumbered Kazakhs in the republic. Beginning in the 19th century, large-scale immigration boosted the number of Russians and other Slavic peoples, while the number of Kazakhs declined as a result of attacks by Russian settlers and forced collectivization under Stalin. Higher birth rates among Kazakhs eventually led to the greater percentage of Kazakhs in the country. Large numbers of Germans (3.6 per cent of the total) and Ukrainians (5.1 per cent) also reside in the republic.

LANGUAGE

Kazakh is the official language, from the Turkic sub-group of the Altaic language family. It is spoken by around 40 per cent of the population as a first language, is being taught in more and more schools, and is written in the Cyrillic script. Standard German is a mother tongue for just under a million speakers (mainly ethnic Germans), and Plautdietsch, another Germanic language, is also spoken by a minority. Uyghur, Ili Turki (both Altaic), and Sinte Romani (an Indo-Iranian language) are also spoken. Many immigrant languages, including Russian, Tatar, and North Azerbaijani, are spoken, the former being widely known.

RELIGION

Although a secular state, Islam is the major religion of the Kazakhs, with the majority of Muslims following the Sunni tradition. The Russian Orthodox Church has the most adherents in the minority Christian tradition and there are also some followers of the Baptist and Evangelical Lutheran Churches.

Jordan (country) (in Arabic, al-Mamlakah al-Urdunniyah al-Hashemiyah), officially Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, kingdom in the Middle East, bordered on the north by Syria, on the east by Iraq and Saudi Arabia, on the south by Saudi Arabia and the Gulf of Aqaba, and on the west by Israel and the West Bank. The area of Jordan is 89,556 sq km (34,578 sq mi) since an exchange of territory with Saudi Arabia in 1965. Amman is the capital and largest city of Jordan.


POPULATION

Jordan has a population of 5,611,202 (2004 estimate), yielding an average population density of 61 people per sq km (159 per sq mi). Average life expectancy at birth in 2004 was 76 years for men and 81 years for women, while the infant mortality rate was 18 per 1,000 live births; the annual average rate of population increase was 2.67 per cent

LANGUAGE

The official language is Standard Arabic, which is a second language taught in most schools (although some still use the vernacular) and used in official domains and as a lingua franca to communicate with other Arab states. The more popular Arabic language is South Levantine Spoken Arabic, which is a mother tongue for 3.5 million people. At least two other Arabic languages are used by minorities, and four other indigenous languages (Adyghe, Armenian, Chechen, and Domari) are also spoken.

RELIGION

Islam is the state religion. The great majority of the Jordanian people are Sunni Muslims. Shiite Muslims form a small minority. Christians, about one third of whom belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, make up about 8 per cent of the population. Arabic the official language.

Japan, constitutional monarchy in East Asia, comprising four large islands, as well as the Ryukyu Islands and more than 1,000 lesser adjacent islands. It is bounded on the north by the Sea of Okhotsk, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Pacific Ocean and the East China Sea, and on the west by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan (East Sea). In Japanese the country’s name is Dai (“great”) Nihon or Nippon (“origin of the Sun”), hence, Land of the Rising Sun. The Japanese islands extend in an irregular crescent from the island of Sakhalin (Russia) to the island of Taiwan (Formosa). Japan proper consists of the large islands of Hokkaido, the northernmost; Honshu, the largest, called the mainland; Shikoku; and Kyushu, the southernmost. The combined area of these islands is about 362,000 sq km (140,000 sq mi). The total area of Japan is 377,837 sq km (145,884 sq mi). Tokyo is Japan’s capital and largest city.

POPULATION

Japan has a population of 127,333,000 (2004 estimate). The overall population density is about 323 people per sq km (836 per sq mi), though local density varies considerably due to the mountainous terrain, with very many high concentrations along the Tokyo-Osaka metropolitan corridor and much lower densities in northern Honshu and Hokkaido.

RELIGION

The principal religious faiths of Japan are Shinto, a polytheistic religion based on ancestor and nature worship, with about 200 sects and denominations; and Buddhism, with about 207 sects and denominations. Christianity—represented in Japan by the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek Orthodox faiths—is practised by less than 4 per cent of the population. Virtually all the Japanese engage in Shinto ceremonies, and the majority of Shintoists are also Buddhists. In the latter half of the 19th century Shinto was made a state religion, stressing worship of the emperor as a divinity and the unique divine origin of the Japanese; all Japanese, regardless of their religious affiliation, were obliged to worship at Shinto shrines. In 1946 the Allied occupation authorities ordered Shinto disestablished and reduced it to the level of a sect. On January 1, 1946, Emperor Hirohito renounced all claim to divinity. The constitution promulgated in 1947 re-established absolute freedom of religion and ended state support of Shinto.

Israel (country), republic in the Middle East, formally known as the State of Israel (in Hebrew, Medinat Yisra’el) and established in 1948. Israel is on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and bordered to the north by Lebanon, to the north-east by Syria, to the east by Jordan, and to the south-west by Egypt. Its southernmost tip extends to the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea; Israel’s area is 21,946 sq km (8,473 sq mi).

POPULATION

Israel has a population of 6,199,008 (2004 estimate), including East Jerusalem, the Golan Heights, and Israeli settlers in the occupied areas. In 1996 there were around 200,000 Jewish settlers in East Jerusalem, 140,000 in Gaza and the West Bank, and 13,000 in the Golan Heights. The overall population density is about 305 people per sq km (790 per sq mi). Non-Jews amount to about 19 per cent of the total population, of which Muslims (14.5 per cent) form a majority; Christians (2.8 per cent) and Druze (1.7 per cent) compose most of the remaining population.


LANGUAGE

Hebrew and Standard Arabic are the official languages. Standard Arabic is a second language learnt in schools and used for official purposes, while more popular forms of Arabic, including South Levantine Spoken and Judaeo-Moroccan Arabic, are used in daily interaction by some. The most widely spoken language is Hebrew, a mother tongue for about 80 per cent of the population and a second language for the remainder. English is a first language for around 100,000 Israelis, and many other languages, from the Indo-European, Altaic, and Afro-Asiatic families, are spoken by minorities including Russian, Eastern Yiddish, Romanian, Ladino, and Dzhidi.

RELIGION

The affairs of the three major religions, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, are overseen by the ministry of religious affairs through councils established by the various religions. Jewish holy days and the sabbath are, by law, observed throughout the country, and only kosher food is served in the army, hospitals, and other official institutions. About 82 per cent of Israel’s Arabs are Muslim, and most of the rest are Christian and Druze.

Iraq, officially Republic of Iraq, also Irak, republic in the Middle East, bordered on the north by Turkey; on the east by Iran; on the south by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the Persian Gulf; and on the west by Jordan and Syria. Iraq has a total area of 437,072 sq km (168,754 sq mi), taking into account the adjustments made to the border with Kuwait under the UN demarcation, which Iraq formally accepted in November 1994; the unadjusted area is 438,317 sq km (169,235 sq mi). These figures exclude Iraq’s share of the Neutral Zone (3,522 sq km/1,360 sq mi), an area with no permanent inhabitants lying between Iraq and Saudi Arabia that is jointly administered by the two governments, and through which nomads can move freely. Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait in August 1990, occupying it until expelled by a UN-led coalition in February 1991, during the Gulf War.

POPULATION

Iraq has a population of 25,374,691 (2004 estimate). The estimated overall population density was about 59 people per sq km (152 per sq mi). The density varies markedly, with the largest concentrations of people in the area of the river systems. The population is about 67 per cent urban; many people have had to move to the cities in recent years.

LANGUAGE

Standard Arabic is the primary official language, while Kurdish (or “Kurdi”), an Indo-Iranian language, shares official status in Kurdish areas (mainly Sulamanya) of Iraq. Standard Arabic is a second language, learnt in schools and used in official domains. The more popular forms of Arabic are Mesopotamian Spoken and North Mesopotamian Spoken Arabic, which combined are mother tongues for the majority of the population. Several minority languages are spoken, including South Azerbaijani, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Western Farsi, and Domari.

RELIGION

Approximately 95 per cent of the people of Iraq are Muslims. About 60 to 65 per cent of them adhere to Shiism and the rest to the Sunni creed. The Shiites mostly live in central and southern Iraq, the Sunni principally in the north. Despite their numerical superiority, the Shiites, unlike in neighbouring Iran, had hardly any influence on government in the period before the War on Iraq. Several of the holy cities of the Shiites, notably An Najaf and Karbalā’, are situated in Iraq. Many Shiites of Iranian origin live in these shrine cities. Among the few Christian sects in Iraq, which comprise 2.7 per cent of the population, are communities practising Nestorianism; the Jacobite Church; offshoots of these two sects, respectively known as Chaldean and Syrian Catholics; and a group known as the Mandaean Baptists living in Baghdad and Amara. In total there are about 519,000 Christians in Iraq. The former deputy prime minister Tariq Aziz is a Christian. Smaller religious groups include the Yazidis (150,000), a uniquely Kurdish syncretic sect who live in the northern mountains.

Iran, officially Islamic Republic of Iran, republic in the Middle East, bordered to the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea; to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan; to the south by the Gulf of Oman, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Persian Gulf; and to the west by Iraq and Turkey. The country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by a shah from 1906 until 1979, when a popular uprising led by Islamic religious leaders resulted in the establishment of an Islamic republic. The area of Iran is 1,648,000 sq km (636,300 sq mi). Until the 1930s Iran was known abroad as Persia. The capital and largest city is Tehran.


POPULATION

Iran has a population of 69,018,924 (2004 estimate). The average density is about 42 people per sq km (109 people per sq mi), but concentrations are much higher in the northern and western parts of the country. The population is about 66 per cent urban; the proportion of city dwellers having increased dramatically in the 1970s and 1980s. The birth rate declined much less steeply than the death rate between the mid-1960s and the mid-1980s; in 2004 Iran had a population increase of about 1 per cent, following a government campaign to encourage smaller families. The infant mortality rate was 43 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2004.

LANGUAGE

The official language of Iran is Persian, or Western Farsi, one of the Indo-Iranian languages, a mother tongue for around a third of the population. Farsi emerged from the Middle Persian phase of the Persian language. The written form uses the Perso-Arabic alphabet, with many Arabic loan words. Around 67 other languages are spoken by certain groups in Iran, mostly from the Indo-Iranian family, but some Semitic and Altaic languages are spoken. South Azerbaijani is a mother tongue for 23.5 million Turki people in Iran—it has more first-language speakers than Farsi. Luri, Kurdi, Mazanderani, and Gilaki (all Indo-Iranian), Qashqa’i and Turkmen (Altaic), and Mesopotamian Spoken Arabic (Semitic) are all mother tongues for large minority groups.

RELIGION

The official religion of Iran is Ithna-Ashari (Arabic, “Twelver”) Shiism, a major sectarian division of Islam, which is followed by more than 90 per cent of the population. Some of the most sacred Shiite places are in Iran; the city of Qom, south of Tehran, is a noted place of pilgrimage. Sunni Muslims form about 9 per cent of Iran’s population, and the country also has dwindling communities of Christians and Jews (0.5 per cent together), as well as followers of Zoroastrianism and Bahai. Except for the followers of the Bahai faith, these religious minorities have inferior, but protected, status in law. As a Muslim reformist sect, those admitting to Bahai sympathies are subject to the death penalty.

Indonesia, Indonesia, Republic of, island republic and largest nation of South East Asia, constituting most of the Malay Archipelago and including all of the former Netherlands Indies. Indonesia comprises 13,677 islands straddling the equator, 6,000 of which are inhabited. From the island of Sumatra in the west to that of New Guinea in the east, Indonesia stretches across some 5,150 km (3,200 mi) of ocean, or almost one eighth of the Earth’s circumference; Indonesia’s north-south spread is about 1,931 km (1,200 mi). The republic shares the island of Borneo with Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam; Indonesian Borneo, equivalent to about 75 per cent of the island, is called Kalimantan. The western half of New Guinea is the Indonesian province of Papua (formerly West Irian and Irian Jaya); the eastern half is part of Papua New Guinea. Kalimantan and Papua, together with Sumatra (also called Irian Sumatera), Java (Jawa), and Celebes (Sulawesi) are the largest islands of Indonesia and, together with the insular provinces of Kalimantan and Jaya, account for about 95 per cent of its land area. The smaller islands, including Madura, Timor, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Bali predominantly form part of island groups. The Moluccas (Maluku) and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusatenggara) are the largest island groups. In 2003, satellite data suggested that Indonesia had an additional 500 islands than previously thought. The marine frontiers of Indonesia include the South China Sea, the Celebes Sea, and the Pacific Ocean to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the south and west. Indonesia has a land area of 1,904,443 sq km (735,310 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Jakarta.

POPULATION

Indonesia, Republic of, island republic and largest nation of South East Asia, constituting most of the Malay Archipelago and including all of the former Netherlands Indies. Indonesia comprises 13,677 islands straddling the equator, 6,000 of which are inhabited. From the island of Sumatra in the west to that of New Guinea in the east, Indonesia stretches across some 5,150 km (3,200 mi) of ocean, or almost one eighth of the Earth’s circumference; Indonesia’s north-south spread is about 1,931 km (1,200 mi). The republic shares the island of Borneo with Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam; Indonesian Borneo, equivalent to about 75 per cent of the island, is called Kalimantan. The western half of New Guinea is the Indonesian province of Papua (formerly West Irian and Irian Jaya); the eastern half is part of Papua New Guinea. Kalimantan and Papua, together with Sumatra (also called Irian Sumatera), Java (Jawa), and Celebes (Sulawesi) are the largest islands of Indonesia and, together with the insular provinces of Kalimantan and Jaya, account for about 95 per cent of its land area. The smaller islands, including Madura, Timor, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Bali predominantly form part of island groups. The Moluccas (Maluku) and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusatenggara) are the largest island groups. In 2003, satellite data suggested that Indonesia had an additional 500 islands than previously thought. The marine frontiers of Indonesia include the South China Sea, the Celebes Sea, and the Pacific Ocean to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the south and west. Indonesia has a land area of 1,904,443 sq km (735,310 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Jakarta.

LANGUAGE

Indonesia’s position as a point of juncture between Asia and Australasia and as a focus of diversity is reflected in its human population as well as its fauna. The islands contain people of more than 330 ethnic groups, speaking 250 distinct languages; adherents of all the world’s major religions are found, as well as a variety of indigenous ones. However, some broad categories can be distinguished. The majority of the population is related to the peoples of East Asia, with considerable mixing over the centuries with people of Arab, Indian, and European stock. This population is concentrated in the islands west of, and including, Celebes and Flores. The population of the islands to the east of this line is predominantly of Melanesian origin.

RELIGION

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution. Indonesia has been influenced by most of the world’s major religions, which were first introduced in coastal areas and spread inland. Islam in various forms is the faith of about 87 per cent of the population, and Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim nation. Christianity is the largest of the minority religions with about 17 million adherents, or almost 9 per cent of the population; about two thirds of the population is Protestant. The main centres of Christianity are the island of Flores and Minahasa in northern Celebes, where more than 80 per cent of the population are Christian; in the central and southern Moluccas, and in the Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra, about 50 per cent of the population are Christian. Buddhism is practised by about 1 per cent of the population, most of whom are of Chinese background. Hinduism, once the predominant religion, is now practised by only about 2 per cent of the population, principally in Bali; however, Hindu influences remain strong within wider Indonesian culture and society. Indigenous religions are still practised in more remote areas.

India (in Hindi, Bharat), officially Republic of India, federal democracy in southern Asia and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, comprising, with Pakistan and Bangladesh, the subcontinent of India. India is the seventh-largest country in the world and the second most populous, after China. It geographically consists of the entire Indian peninsula and portions of the Asian mainland. India is bordered on the north by Afghanistan (if Pakistan-controlled Kashmir is included), Tibet, Nepal, China, and Bhutan; on the south by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, which separate it from Sri Lanka, and the Indian Ocean; on the west by the Arabian Sea and Pakistan; on the east by Myanmar (Burma), the Bay of Bengal and Bangladesh, which almost cuts off north-east India from the rest of the country. With Jammu and Kashmir (the definitive status of which has not been determined), India has an area of 3,165,596 sq km (1,222,243 sq mi). The capital of India is New Delhi, and the country’s largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, and Kolkata (formerly Calcutta).

POPULATION

India has about 16 per cent of the world’s population. Its population is 1,065,070,600 (2004 estimate). The overall population density is about 358 people per sq km (928 per sq mi). Many births and deaths are unregistered, but official data suggest that the birth rate in 2004 was about 23 per 1,000. Life expectancy averaged 64 years. Approximately 72 per cent of India’s population lives in rural areas. Though living conditions in many areas have improved—for example through the provision of clean water—most people are still poor. About one third of the population lives on or below the UN poverty line; less than 3 per cent of Indian households have an income of more than US$2,500 a year.


LANGUAGE

Around 387 languages are spoken in India, where the principal official language is Hindi. Seventeen other languages hold official status in their local states (Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, and Nepali, Konkani, and Manipuri, which were added to the constitution in 1992). As well as Hindi, English is recognized as having associate official status, for use in official proceedings such as parliament (although only the well-educated have fluency in it). Hindi, an Indo-Iranian language written in the Devanagari script, is spoken by about half the population mainly in the northern states. Of the other official languages, the following are the most widespread: Bengali (69.5 million), Telugu (66 million), Marathi (62.4 million), Tamil (53 million), and Urdu (43.4 million). Sanskrit is the least known, with just over 50,000 mother-tongue speakers according to the 1991 census.

The many other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, Dravidian, Indo-Iranian, and Tai-Kadai language families. Their speakers number anything from a few thousand to several million. The most widely spoken are Maithili (22 million), Bhojpuri (24,544,000), Awadhi (20 million), and Haryanvi (13 million).

RELIGION

The major religious groups (followed by their approximate portion of the total population; 2001 census) are Hindus (82 per cent), Muslims (12.1 per cent), Christians (2.3 per cent), and Sikhs (1.94 per cent). Other important religious minorities are Buddhists, Jains, and Parsis.

The rise of religious nationalism and fundamentalism in India from the 1980s onwards has increased political and social tensions in some areas, and at times—such as the 1992 and 1993 riots in Punjab and elsewhere—has erupted into violence. The Hindutva movement, demanding a Hindu India, has grown significantly in strength. It is represented by the group of organizations collectively known as the Sangh Parivar, including the staunchly Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the ultra-extremist Shiv Sena. The rise to power of the parliamentary wing of the movement, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in recent years, albeit as leader of a wide-ranging coalition called the National Democratic Alliance, has increased the influence of Hindutva ideology. The rise of Hindutva has raised serious concerns regarding the future of the secular India established under Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India.

Georgia (republic) (in Georgian, Sakartvelo), republic in the Transcaucasia region of western Asia, bordered by the Black Sea on the west, Russia on the north, and Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Turkey on the south. Formerly the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Georgia includes two autonomous republics—Abkhazia and Ajaria—and one autonomous region—South Ossetia. Tbilisi is the capital and largest city.

POPULATION

The population of Georgia is 4,909,633 (2004 estimate), which gives a population density of 70 people per sq km (182 per sq mi), concentrated mainly along the coast of the Black Sea and in river valleys, especially the valley of the Kura River. The population is made up of nearly a hundred different ethnic groups. Georgians comprise the largest group with about 70 per cent of the population, followed by Armenians (9 per cent), Russians (7.4 per cent), and Azeris (5.1 per cent). Large numbers of Ossetians, Greeks, and Abkhazians also reside in the republic.

LANGUAGE

Georgian, a South Caucasian language, is the country’s official language, spoken by about three-quarters of the population as a mother tongue. It has its own unique script, called Mkhedruli. Around 500,000 Margaluri people speak a South Caucasian language, Mingrelian, while a North Caucasian language, Abkhaz, is a mother tongue for around 100,000. Osetin, an Indo-Iranian language written in the Cyrillic script, is spoken by 164,000. Other, mainly South Caucasian, indigenous languages are spoken, as well as many immigrant languages including Armenian, Russian, and North Azerbaijani.

RELIGION

The predominant religion is Orthodox Christianity, although some groups adhere to Islam, including the Azeris, Kurds, and Adzhars (ethnic Georgians who were converted to Islam under Turkish rule). Judaism is also practised.

Cambodia or Kampuchea, republic in South East Asia, bordered on the north-east by Laos, on the east and south-east by Vietnam, on the south-west by the Gulf of Thailand, and on the west and north-west by Thailand. Cambodia covers a total area of 181,035 sq km (69,898 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Cambodia is Phnom Penh.

POPULATION

About 94 per cent of the Cambodian people are ethnic Cambodians, known as Khmer. Minorities such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Cham-Malays (who inhabit the mountainous regions) make up most of the remaining 6 per cent. In 2002 population was about 82 per cent rural.

LANGUAGE

The official language is Central Khmer, an Austro-Asiatic language sometimes called “Cambodian”, which is spoken by the majority of the population. French was formerly an important secondary language, but its use has been discouraged since independence. Western Cham, an Austronesian language, is a mother tongue for around 220,000 people living near major cities. Sixteen other Austro-Asiatic languages are spoken, including Tampuan, Central Mnong, and Kuy.

RELIGION

More than 90 per cent of Cambodia’s population adheres to Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism. Buddhists built many pagodas throughout the country to serve their religious needs. Buddhism was persecuted under the Khmer Rouge, but has revived since their fall in 1979.

Brunei, officially Nation of Brunei, Abode of Peace (Malay, Negara Brunei Darussalam), sultanate on the northern coast of the island of Borneo, eastern Asia, bounded on the north by the South China Sea, and on all other sides by the Malaysian state of Sarawak, which also divides the country into two parts. The total area is 5,765 sq km (2,226 sq mi). The capital is Bandar Seri Begawan.


POPULATION

The population of Brunei is 365,251 (2004 estimate). The capital and chief town is Bandar Seri Begawan (population, 1995 estimate, 50,000). The overall population density is about 69 people per sq km (179 per sq mi). Brunei had an 8 per cent annual rate of population increase in the late 1980s, reflecting a trend of immigration to the country. The population growth rate in 2004 was 1.95 per cent. About two thirds of the population of Brunei are Malay. Minorities include Chinese, Indians, and various indigenous peoples, such as Dayaks, Ibans, and Belaits. Life expectancy in 2004 was 74.5 years.

LANGUAGE

The official language is Malay (an Austronesian Language), which is mainly a second language that is taught in schools and used only in formal domains. The majority of the population speaks Brunei as a mother tongue, which is also an Austronesian language, similar to Malay. Several other indigenous languages are spoken including Iban and Tutong (both Austronesian); Mandarin Chinese, Min Nan Chinese, and Min Dong Chinese (Sino-Tibetan languages); and English, a national language spoken widely as a second language, and a first language for a minority of Chinese people.

RELIGION

Islam is the state religion; 63 per cent of the people are Muslims; 14 per cent, Buddhists; 8 per cent, Christians; and 15 per cent follow indigenous beliefs.

Bhutan, monarchy, southern Central Asia, in the eastern Himalaya, bounded on the north and north-west by Tibet and on the east, south, and south-west by India. It has a total area of 47,000 sq km (18,100 sq mi). The capital of Bhutan is Thimphu.


POPULATION

The largest ethnic group in Bhutan, constituting more than 60 per cent of the population, is the Bhote, or Bhotia, who live mostly in the east. Nepalese constitute the largest minority. Bhutan has a population of 2,185,569 (2004 estimate), which gives a population density of nearly 47 people per sq km (120 per sq mi). Thimphu (population, 2001 estimate, 32,000) is the capital and largest town.

LANGUAGE

The official religion is a form of Mahayana Buddhism; monasteries are numerous in Bhutan, and monks number some 6,000.


RELIGION

The official language is Dzongkha, a Sino-Tibetan language. Twenty-four indigenous languages are spoken in Bhutan, and there is no majority language although the government is trying to establish Dzongkha as the national language, while protecting the linguistic and ethnic diversity of the country. Nepali, an Indo-Iranian language, is possibly the majority language in the south, a mother tongue for almost as many Bhutanese as is the official language. Tshangla (Sino-Tibetan) is the first language for similar numbers of Schachop peoples in the east and south-east of the country. Other languages spoken include Khengkha, Bumthangkha, Nyenkha, and Tibetan.

Bangladesh, in full, People’s Republic of Bangladesh, republic of southern Asia, in the north-esheastern portion of the Indian subcontinent, bordered on the west, north, and east by India, on the south-east by Myanmar (Burma), and on the south by the Bay of Bengal. The area of the country is 143,998 sq km (55,598 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Bangladesh is Dhaka.

POPULATION

The vast majority of Bangladesh’s inhabitants are Bengalis, largely descended from Indo-Aryans who began to migrate into the country from the west thousands of years ago and who mixed with indigenous groups of various races in Bengal. Ethnic minorities include the Chakma and Mogh, Mongoloid peoples who live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts; the Santal, mainly descended from migrants from present-day India; and the Biharis, non-Bengali Muslims who migrated from India after the partition of India in 1947.

LANGUAGE

The national language, Bangla (or Bengali), of the Indo-Iranian family, is the first language of much of the population. It is written in its own script. Chittagonian, an Indo-Iranian language considered by some to be a dialect of Bangla although not inherently intelligible with it, is a mother tongue for 14 million. Slyhetti, another Indo-Iranian language close to Bangla, is a mother tongue for 5 million. Thirty-four other indigenous languages are spoken, mainly from the Sino-Tibetan and Indo-Iranian families, although some Austro-Asiatic and one of the Dravidian languages are spoken. Urdu is the language of several hundred thousand people, many of whom migrated from India in the late 1940s.

RALIGION

Islam, the state religion, is the faith of about 85 per cent of the population, almost all of whom adhere to the Sunni branch. Hindus make up most of the remainder, and the country has small communities of Buddhists, Christians, and animists.

Bahrain or Bahrein, independent kingdom in the Middle East, comprising an archipelago of 33 islands in the southern Persian Gulf, between the Qatar Peninsula on the east and the coast of Saudi Arabia on the west, one of the Persian Gulf states. It has a total area of 707 sq km (273 sq mi). The principal islands include Bahrain (area, 562 sq km/217 sq mi), by far the largest island; Al Muḩarraq; Umm an Na’san; Sitrah; Jiddah; and the Ḩawar group. Manama is Bahrain’s capital and largest city. Bahrain was under British control from 1861 to 1971, when it gained its independence.


POPULATION

The population of Bahrain is over 70 per cent Arab; roughly a third of the population is foreign-born, many of them Indian, Pakistani, Iranian, or European expatriate workers, but there are also large numbers of Arab immigrants. Bahrain has a population of 677,886 (2004 estimate), giving a population density of 1,095 people per sq km (2,836 per sq mi). Only half of these are Bahraini citizens. Average life expectancy at birth in 2004 was 72 years for men and 77 years for women. Infant mortality was 18 per 1,000 live births (2004). The majority of the population is concentrated in the northern part of the country.

LANGUAGE

Standard Arabic is the official language, although this is always a second language learned in schools and used in official domains, and generally only the well-educated elite are fluent in it. Bahrain Spoken Arabic and Gulf Spoken Arabic are the mother tongues for the majority of the population, particularly the former. Non-indigenous languages including Western Farsi and Urdu are also spoken.


RELIGION

Almost all the resident population of Bahrain is Muslim. Shiism is the dominant creed of Islam in Bahrain, with some 75 per cent of the Muslim population, but the remaining 25 per cent, mainly the ruling classes, are Sunni; this division tends to lead to recurrent internal tension. Bahrain is notably liberal in contrast with other neighbouring states such as Saudi Arabia.

Azerbaijan, officially Republic of Azerbaijan, republic in the Transcaucasia region of western Asia, bordered on the north by Russia, on the north-west by Georgia, on the east by the Caspian Sea, on the south by Iran, and on the west by Armenia. Formerly a republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the republic includes the regions known under the Soviets as the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by a mountainous strip in Armenia. Azerbaijan, which covers an area of about 86,600 sq km (33,400 sq mi), is a land of high mountain ranges and low river valleys. Baku, a large port city on the Caspian Sea, is the capital and largest city.


POPULATION

Although it contains people of many different nationalities, the republic has become more ethnically homogeneous in recent years. The proportion of Azeris, who have traditionally comprised about four fifths of the population, has increased since the start of the conflict with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh in 1990. Large numbers of Azeri refugees have flowed over the border from Armenia, and large numbers of Russians, Armenians, and other nationalities have left the country. The Armenian community, which comprised 6 per cent of the population in 1989, is now confined almost exclusively to the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave. Other nationalities include Lezgins, Kurds, Talysh, Tatars, Georgians, Ukrainians, and Avars. Most ethnic groups have resided in the area of present-day Azerbaijan for centuries, although Slavs arrived in large numbers with the industrialization boom of the last century. Lezgins, Kurds, and Talysh, who are geographically concentrated in the north, east, and south of the republic, have agitated for increased autonomy in recent years.

LANGUAGE

The official language of Azerbaijan is North Azerbaijani, an Altaic language, spoken by most people. While the Cyrillic script is used widely in Azerbaijan, the Latin alphabet was made official in 2001 and now all newspapers are required to use this script. Thirteen other indigenous languages are spoken (mainly from the Indo-Iranian and North Caucasian language families), including Talysh, Lezgi, and Avar. Immigrant languages such as Russian, Ukrainian, and Turkish are also heard.

Religion

The traditional religion of the Azeris is Shiite Islam, which has experienced a revival in recent years. Orthodox Christianity is practised to varying degrees among the Georgian, Armenian, and Slavic minorities.

Armenia (country), republic in the Transcaucasia region of western Asia, bordered by Georgia to the north, Azerbaijan to the east, Turkey to the west and south, and Iran to the south. The Azerbaijani enclave of Naxçıvan also forms part of its southern boundary. Formerly a republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Armenia is an extremely mountainous country with a limited amount of arable land. Population is concentrated in river valleys, especially along the River Hrazdan, where Yerevan, the capital and largest city, is located.

POPULATION

The population of Armenia, estimated at 3,325,307 (2004 estimate), is characterized by a high degree of ethnic homogeneity. Armenians constitute more than 90 per cent of the republic’s population, a proportion that increased considerably in recent years with the departure of Azerbaijanis and the influx of Armenian refugees from the Nagorno-Karabakh territory of Azerbaijan, because of the conflict in that region. Kurds and Russians are the next two most populous ethnic groups in the republic, but they each comprise only about 1.5 per cent of Armenia’s total population. Small numbers of Ukrainians, Georgians, and Greeks also live in the republic. Life expectancy in 2004 was 67 years.

LANGUAGE

The official language of Armenia is Armenian, an Indo-European language with many dialects (and a unique 38-letter alphabet), spoken by the majority of the population. North Azerbaijani, an Altaic language, is a mother tongue for around 161,000 and is used in some schools. Kurmanji (an Indo-Iranian language), Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (a Semitic language), and Lomavren (an Indo-European language from the Armenian sub-group) are also spoken by some.

RELIGION

The vast majority of the population is Christian. The Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) Church is the most popular among Armenians. Russian Orthodoxy and Shiite Islam are also practised. The Armenian diaspora numbers some 5 million people, including 1.5 million in the former Soviet Union states, 2.5 million in the United States, and 400,000 in France.

Afghanistan (in Persian, Afghánistán), republic in south-western Asia, bordered on the north by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan; on the east by China, Jammu and Kashmir, and Pakistan; on the south by Pakistan; and on the west by Iran. Afghanistan is roughly ovoid in shape and has a maximum length, from north-east to south-west, of about 1,450 km (900 mi) and a width of about 725 km (450 mi). It has an area of 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Kabul
The population of Afghanistan, predominantly rural, can be divided into four main ethnic groups. The Pashtuns, or true Afghans, make up about 50 per cent of the total population and are divided into two sub-groups, the Durani and Ghilzais. The Tajiks, of Iranian stock, make up about 25 per cent, and most of the remainder consists of Uzbeks (9 per cent) and Hazaras (9 per cent).

For administrative purposes, Afghanistan is divided into 31 provinces: Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghaznī, Ghor, Helmand, Herāt, Jouzjan, Kabul, Kandahār, Kapisa, Kunar, Laghman, Logar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Nuristan, Paktika, Parwan, Patya, Qondūz, Samangan, Sar-i-Pul, Takhar, Uruzgan, Wardak, and Zabul

POPULATION

The population of Afghanistan, predominantly rural, can be divided into four main ethnic groups. The Pashtuns, or true Afghans, make up about 50 per cent of the total population and are divided into two sub-groups, the Durani and Ghilzais. The Tajiks, of Iranian stock, make up about 25 per cent, and most of the remainder consists of Uzbeks (9 per cent) and Hazaras (9 per cent).

LANGUAGE

The official languages of Afghanistan are Southern Pashto, an Indo-Iranian Language, and Eastern Farsi, a Persian language. Pashto is written in Perso-Arabic script, and Farsi in Arabic script. Over 40 other languages are used in Afghanistan, mostly Indo-Iranian languages such as Hazaragi, Aimaq, Pashayi, and Western Balochi. A few Turkic languages from the Altaic family are also spoken, namely Southern Uzbek and Turkmen. Tajiki Spoken Arabic, a Semitic language, is a mother tongue for a minority, as is Brahui, a Dravidian language. Non-indigenous languages including Parsi-Dari and Western Punjabi are also heard.

RELIGION

More than 99 per cent of the people of Afghanistan are Muslims, mainly of the Sunni sect. Most of the remainder, notably the Hazara, belong to the Shiite sect. Small colonies of Jews, Hindus, and Parsis are scattered in the towns. Mazār-e Sharīf is the leading place of pilgrimage.

Malaysia

Malaysia, federation of 13 states forming a constitutional monarchy in South East Asia, comprising two distinct regions separated by some 650 km (400 mi) of the South China Sea. Malaysia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The regions are Peninsular Malaysia, formerly known as West Malaysia; and Sarawak and Sabah, formerly known as East Malaysia. Peninsular Malaysia comprises 11 states occupying the southern half of the Malay Peninsula, bordered on the north by Thailand, on the south by Singapore, on the west by the Strait of Malacca, and on the east by the South China Sea. The states of Sabah and Sarawak occupy the northern third of the island of Borneo, and are bordered on the north and west by the South China Sea, on the east by the Sula and Celebes seas, and on the south by the Indonesian province of Kalimantan. The island of Labuan, formerly part of Sabah, was made a federal territory in 1984. The sultanate of Brunei forms a coastal enclave in northern Sarawak.

POPULATION

Malaysia has a very diverse population, reflecting its position on one of the major sea-route crossroads of Asia. Ethnic Malays, who originated in different parts of the peninsula and archipelagic South East Asia, make up about 47 per cent of the country’s total population. About 32 per cent of the population is Chinese, 9 per cent indigenous ethnic peoples of Borneo, and 9 per cent Indian. There are also small communities of Orang Asli, Pakistanis, Filipinos, Indonesians, and Europeans. The Orang Asli were the original inhabitants of the peninsula, but today comprise only a tiny minority of the population. Divided ethnically into the Jakun, who speak an archaic Malay, and the Semang and Senoi, whose languages belong to the Mon-Khmer family, the Orang Asli are primarily adherents of traditional religions. In Peninsular Malaysia about half the population is ethnic Malay (see Malayan Peoples) living mainly in the rural areas. About 30 per cent is Chinese, concentrated in the cities. The remainder is made up mainly of Indians, Pakistanis, and Tamils, many of whom work on the plantations.
Islam is the national religion of Malaysia, and about half the population, principally the Malays, are Muslims. However, the constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and the many other ethnic groups practise a variety of faiths. About 25 per cent of the population, almost all Chinese, practise the so-called Chinese religion, a blend of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. Another 6 per cent, also predominantly Chinese, are Buddhists. Indians make up the 7 per cent of the population who are Hindus. Christians form about 6 per cent of the population; Sabah’s largest ethnic group, the Kadayan, are Christian. Many of the indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak follow traditional beliefs.

LANGUAGE

Malay (Bahasa Malaysia, an Austronesian language) is the official language, spoken throughout the country and a mother tongue for almost half the population. There are 140 indigenous languages in total that are spoken across Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, 39 are heard, mainly from the Austronesian family, but also many Sino-Tibetan, Dravidian, and Austro-Asiatic languages. Besides Malay, the most widespread in this area are Min Nan Chinese (1,946,700 speakers), Hakka Chinese (985,600), and Tamil (1,060,000). English is widely spoken as a second language.

In Sarawak state, 46 languages are spoken, all Austronesian. Iban (1 million, including second-language speakers) is the most widely spoken language in this area of Malaysia, and is taught in some primary schools. Melanu (25,120) and Lundeyeh are the other two most popular languages. Many of the other languages have very small numbers of speakers, some numbering fewer than a hundred. Fifty-four languages are spoken in Sabah state, all Austronesian except for Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole with Pilippino influences spoken in one Semporna village. Banjar (900,000) is the language most widely used in Sabah; Central Dusun (140,500) and Tausug, a mother tongue for Sulu Archipelago (Philippines) immigrants (110,000), are also spoken in large numbers

Religion

Islam is the national religion of Malaysia, and about half the population, principally the Malays, are Muslims. However, the constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and the many other ethnic groups practise a variety of faiths. About 25 per cent of the population, almost all Chinese, practise the so-called Chinese religion, a blend of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. Another 6 per cent, also predominantly Chinese, are Buddhists. Indians make up the 7 per cent of the population who are Hindus. Christians form about 6 per cent of the population; Sabah’s largest ethnic group, the Kadayan, are Christian. Many of the indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak follow traditional beliefs.

Taiwan

Taiwan or Formosa, island in East Asia, and, since the Communist victory in 1949 on the Chinese mainland, the seat of the Chinese Nationalist government (not recognized by the People's Republic of China). It is separated from the Chinese mainland by the Taiwan (Formosa) Strait and is bordered on the north by the East China Sea, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the South China Sea. Taiwan also encompasses a number of island groups: the P'enghu Islands or Pescadores, the small Quemoy Islands off the mainland city of Amoy (Xiamen), and the Matsu group off Fuzhou (Foochow). The People's Republic of China claims Taiwan as one of the provinces of its republic. The area of Taiwan is about 36,000 sq km (13,900 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Taiwan is T’aipei.

POPULATION

The population of Taiwan comprises three main groups: the Taiwanese (about 84 per cent), who are descendants of the Chinese who emigrated from Fujian and Guangdong provinces during the 18th and 19th centuries; the Chinese (about 14 per cent) who moved to the island after World War II; and the indigenous people of the island (2 per cent), who are perhaps related to the people of the Philippines or Indonesia. Traditionally the society has been agrarian, but by the early 1990s only about 13 per cent of the labour force worked in agriculture.

Taiwan is divided into 16 counties (hsien), 5 municipalities, and 2 special municipalities (T’aipei, the capital, and Kaohsiung). Each county is subdivided into townships (chen), rural districts or groups of villages (hsiang), and precincts.

LANGUAGE

Around 30 languages are spoken in Taiwan. The official language is Mandarin Chinese (see Chinese language), a mother tongue for around 20 per cent of the population and a second language for the majority. The official Romanization system used in Taiwan for Chinese words follows the Wade-Giles system rather than the Pinyin system used on the mainland. However, Min Nan Chinese is a mother tongue for the majority of the population, most of whom are bilingual in Mandarin Chinese. Hakka Chinese is a first language for around 11 per cent of the population, while other minority languages, mainly Aboriginal Formosan languages from the Austronesian language family, are spoken.

RELIGION

Most of the population of Taiwan practises various combinations of traditional Chinese religion (religious Daoism) and Buddhism, with additional observance of the philosophy of Confucianism. About 5 per cent of the people are Christians, mostly Roman Catholics, and fewer than 1 per cent are Muslims.

korea's secret

Korea, peninsula, Asia, divided since 1948 into two political entities: the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). The following article deals with the history of Korea until its division. For physical description, climate, people, economy, and government, and subsequent history.


Goryo Period

During the 9th century, Silla's monarchy and governing institutions declined, and regional leaders gained strength at the expense of the capital. From 890 to 935 the old three kingdoms re-emerged on the peninsula. This time the northern state, Koryo (the name, which is derived from Koguryo, is reflected in the modern Western name, Korea), accomplished unification. Founded in 918 by an astute warrior and statesman named Wang Kon, Koryo brought Korea's regional leaders under a single central authority and extended the frontiers of the country north to the Yalu River. Here Koryo came into conflict with the Dongbei Khitan (Liao) dynasty. In wars lasting from 993 to 1018, Koryo suffered greatly but maintained its position and in 1022 gained a definitive peace and consolidated its territorial gains.


Choson period

During the 14th century, Koreans were broadly stimulated by Neo-Confucianism, which had been formulated by the Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi. This highly developed value system energized the middle ranks of Koryo officialdom, and their movement for social and political reform inspired the founding of the Yi dynasty (also known as Choson) by Yi Songgye.

Yi's early kings and its Confucianized elite class established a social and political structure that withstood all challenges until 1910, achieving one of the longest dominations by a single dynasty in world history. Although heavily influenced by Chinese culture, Yi dynasty Korea maintained a distinctive identity, as illustrated by its own unique alphabet—Han’gul, invented in 1446 by King Sejong (see Korean Language). Yi's first 200 years were blessed with peace and generally good government, although disruptive divisions within the elite class began in the 16th century. While distracted by these struggles, Yi was invaded in 1592 by the Japanese, who wanted to use Korea as a transit route for the conquest of China. By 1598, however, Yi, with the aid of China's Ming dynasty and the efforts of its own redoubtable naval hero, Yi Sunsin, had repulsed the Japanese. Recovery had still not been achieved when Korea suffered more invasions, this time from the Manchus (1627, 1636), who thus wrenched Yi away from Ming suzerainty. The Manchu conquest of China in 1644 and the advent of the Qing dynasty brought new problems for Yi but also had the effect of stimulating the Koreans, temporarily cut off from Chinese influence, to develop their own culture more creatively.


Shortly before the end of the war in the Pacific, the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) agreed to divide Korea at the 38th parallel for the purpose of accepting the surrender of Japanese troops. Both powers, however, used their presence to promote friendly governments. The USSR suppressed the moderate nationalists in the north and gave its support to Kim Il Sung, a Communist who had led anti-Japanese guerrillas in Dongbei. In the south was a well-developed leftist movement, opposed by various groups of right-wing nationalists. Unable to find a congenial moderate who could bring these forces together, the United States ended up suppressing the left and promoting Syngman Rhee, a nationalist who had opposed the Japanese and had lived in exile in the United States. All Koreans looked towards unification, but in the developing Cold War atmosphere, US-Soviet unification conferences (1946, 1947) broke up in mutual distrust. In 1947 both powers began arranging separate governments. US-sponsored elections in 1948, observed by the United Nations, led to the founding of the Republic of Korea in August 1948. The north followed in September 1948 by establishing the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). On June 25, 1950, DPRK forces attacked across the 38th parallel, starting the Korean War.


In the present, Korea novella is very popular in the Philippines; one of the famous Korea novellas is JUMONG, jumong characterized Wang Kon who fought dhongbei khitan dynasty (han dynasty) for there freedom.